Some accounts say that Aryadeva was born from a lotus flower in Sri Lanka near the king’s palace and was adopted by the king as his next successor. At an early age, he went to south India, became a monk and studied the Buddhist scriptures thoroughly under Nagarjuna in the Shatavahana kingdom of King Udayibhadra.
Aryadeva went to Nalanda University and defeated Matrcheta and accepted him as his disciple. He stayed at Nalanda for many years. He built many monasteries in south India and taught extensively thereby establishing the Mahayana tradition.
The Four Hundred Verse Treatise on Madhyamika composed by Aryadeva is based on the means of meditation. The first eight chapters explain the skilful means a practitioner employs to meditate on the level of conventional truth. The second eight chapters explain how to practise on the essential nature of ultimate truth, which is the outcome of the practice based on the skilful means on the level of conventional truth. Out of the former, the first four chapters explain how to rid oneself of the four incorrect considerations.
Chapter 1: The methods for the renunciation of grasping at (the body as) permanent
The first chapter of the Four Hundred Verse Treatise explains the skilful means of practice to get rid of the perverted view that holds the body to be permanent. The points discussed here are: the certainty of death and the uncertainty of the time of death, which increases awareness of the matter of death. The death of loved ones such as sons, daughters and other relatives are highlighted as facts about the certainty of death and the uncertainty of the time. This chapter advises us to avoid attachment to loved ones, for such attachment causes immeasurable suffering. In brief, it conveys this message: that we are born to die and depart from those we have met, since this is the inherent nature of samsara. Life goes by like a flash of lightning in the sky but if one can get rid of one’s attachment to the body, then there is nothing to fear at all.
Chapter 2: The methods for the renunciation of grasping at (the body as) pleasurable
The second chapter explains the skilful means of practice to renounce the perverted view that holds the body to be pleasurable. Although our body seems like an enemy, we still need to care of it. A healthy body can be helpful for accumulating merit which will aid us in accomplishing Enlightenment. On the other hand, the body can be an enemy, as it brings us suffering and pain, not just temporary pleasure and happiness. We experience suffering from hunger, sickness, old age and death so Aryadeva advises us to refrain from giving great care to our bodies, especially for the engagement in unwholesome activities. The body is made up of the four elements, so by its nature it is perishable. Thus, the body brings suffering. If we regard the body as source of pleasure, we will not overcome attachment. Therefore, we need to regard the body as a source of suffering.
Chapter 3: The methods for the renunciation of grasping at (the body as) clean
The third chapter explains the skilful means of practice to renounce the perverted view that holds the body to be clean. One is attached to the body as a pleasurable object since one erroneously considers it to be clean. But one will never find lasting happiness from attachment to the body. Even dogs find their mates attractive and are attached to them, so there is nothing special about the person one finds so alluring. Although people have attractive qualities, they also have unattractive aspects. The points explained here highlight the difficulty of staying together with the person one loves, as well as the fact that any happiness one might find in one’s physical relationship with him or her is not the supreme happiness. In brief, the message here is: if one thinks about the filth inside one’s partner’s body, how silly it is to become attached to a body full of excrement! One can never make the internal body clean, no matter how much one washes from the outside.
Chapter 4: The methods for the abandonment of grasping at (the body as) ‘self’
The fourth chapter explains the skilful means of practice to renounce the perverted view that holds the body to be ‘self’. Aryadeva explains this using the example of a king. He points out that there is no reason for a king to feel proud of his status because the land he rules is the common property of everyone living in the kingdom. He is a servant of the people, endowed with their taxes. To be able to protect and take care of his citizens, they have to protect and take care of him as well. He survives by depending on his people’s wealth. If his punishment causes them hardship and pain, how can that be a source of his happiness? How can he find happiness as a king by continuously exploiting others? The message here is: refrain from the pride of your status, for this is definitely the state from which you will lose and fall.
Chapter 5: Expressing the conduct of bodhichitta (altruistic mind)
The fifth chapter explains the conduct of pure motivation, or bodhichitta, on the basis of spiritual qualities and the final fruition of Nirvana, as well as the nature of the path of Mahayana. Spiritual qualities are explained in three sub-categories: the operational function of skilful methods and compassion, the outcome of the efficacy of the qualities, and the nature of omniscient wisdom through dispelling objections. The fruition of Nirvana is explained by the conduct of bodhichitta, the nature of the path of Mahayana (the practice of the nature of the path of omniscience) as well as through an explanation based on the attitude and conduct of a Bodhisattva. It defines the significance and the vast qualities of bodhichitta, and emphasizes the supreme qualities of absolute bodhichitta.
Chapter 6: Instruction in the ways of eliminating afflictions
The sixth chapter explains the three poisonous emotions—desire, anger and ignorance—that cause great suffering. Desire gathers things to us, anger causes disputes and repels things away from us, and ignorance acts as the basis that causes the others to flare up. In brief, this chapter is explained through six sub-topics: (1) apprehending the functions of the afflictive emotions, (2) expressing the result of afflictive desires and so forth, (3) explaining how a teacher corrects a student by means of conceptualizing the function of afflictive emotions, (4) relying on the antidote, having identified a certain level of the origin of afflictive emotions, (5) abandoning the generation of afflictive emotions through intellectual reasoning and (6) concluding the topic by summarizing the previous explanations. Aryadeva advises us to avoid these three poisonous emotions by recognizing their impacts. The message here is: the nature of all consciousness arises at beginning, abides in the middle and disintegrates at the end. Realizing the truth of these essenceless phenomena will free us from the three poisonous emotions.
Chapter 7: Emphasizing the methods for abandoning sensual pleasures
The seventh chapter explains its subject in three sub-topics: (1) advice on the abandonment of samsara, (2) stressing the ways and methods to abandon that samsara and (3) introducing the fruition to be achieved after the complete abandonment of samsara. Here, Aryadeva advises us to reflect on the suffering of samsara and act diligently to eliminate non-virtuous actions, which are the origin of misery. A wise person who strives hard for liberation doesn’t even desire the rewards of wholesome actions—rebirth in the higher realms of samsara—so he advises us to try as far as possible to adopt the methods of complete abandonment.
Chapter 8: Teaching the methods for completely training disciples
The eighth chapter explains the aspect of training disciples through the abandonment of the afflictive emotions and the realization of ultimate reality. It is said that if we analyze the objects of the afflictive emotions—desire, anger and ignorance—nothing exists in reality. Even one object can be seen differently based on beings’ perceptions, where some will perceive it as attractive and others will perceive it as repulsive. This chapter also explains that the five poisonous emotions (including pride and envy) are truly non-existent, as the intrinsic nature of mind is luminous and the defilements are non-inherent.
Lord Buddha expounded the profound teachings according to the level and capacity of his disciples. He taught generosity for those with inferior mental capacity, ethical discipline for those with average capacity and emptiness for those with superior capacity. It is explained that there are three types of disciples: hearers, solitary realizers and Bodhisattvas. The first two meditate on the realization of personal selflessness and Bodhisattvas meditate on the emptiness of both self and phenomena.
Chapter 9: Meditation on the teaching that refutes permanent phenomena
The ninth chapter explains that all the conventional phenomena that exist in samsara arise from the combination of causes and conditions. Therefore, there is no pervasion of non-conventional phenomena arising without cause. Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas accept as an aspect of ultimate truth both partless particles and indivisible moments of consciousness as permanent. Madhyamikas, however, strongly oppose this perspective, asserting as a valid reason the thorough investigation of those partless particles and indivisible moments of consciousness. They demonstrate the actual reality that there are no partless, permanent phenomena in the aspect of ultimate truth, by saying that even those so-called partless particles and moments of consciousness are subject to further disintegration.
Chapter 10: Meditation on the teaching that refutes ego or self
The tenth chapter explains the meditation on refuting ego. According to the assertion of the Vaisheshikas, they say that there are two distinct selves, inner and outer, which bind us within samsara or deliver us into nirvana. They say the inner self dwells in the depths of one’s body. It lets the sense faculties follow their objects and remains as the object of ego-clinging. It also acts as the enjoyer of the fruition of both virtuous and non-virtuous actions. On the other hand, the outer self collects the body and senses together and benefits the inner self. They assert the self as female, male or hermaphrodite to be permanent, since it doesn’t change even if the gender changes. However, Aryadeva refutes these assertions by reasoning that if the self doesn’t change, then the nature of the previous gender and the present gender of male and female should also remain changeless. So, the self is neither female, male nor hermaphrodite. Just like perceiving a mottled rope as a snake due to a deluded mind, one tends to assume that the self is existent without cognitive analysis.
Chapter 11: Meditation on the teaching that refutes the fixed designations of ‘time’ (past, present and future)
The eleventh chapter explains about refuting fixed designations of time. The Tirthikas’ (non-Buddhist followers), some Sautrantikas’, and the Vaibhashikas’ view that accepts a time designation as permanent is rejected by the Madhyamikas. Generally, the three times are refuted by the Madhyamikas through analyzing the nature of emptiness. The three times, they say, are just imputations based on compounded things. The compounded things seem permanent but if we examine them, they are intrinsically empty in nature. Likewise, time can also be realized as empty in nature. Specifically, the three times are negated by examining their respective characteristics. The future is refuted by analyzing the characteristic of its origin, while the present is negated by the characteristic of its dependent existence, and the past is negated by examining the characteristic of its perishable nature. Thus, the Madhyamikas neither declare the three times to be different from compounded things nor identical.
Chapter 12: Meditation on the teaching of the profound view (emptiness)
The twelfth chapter explains the profound view of Madhaymika by teaching the certainty of emptiness as the perfect view, gradually refuting the rest of the views that are contradictory to it. Views of that which is compounded within existent or non-existent boundaries are declared to be wrong views. Therefore, Tirthikas and the rest of the Buddhist practitioners up to Madhaymika are all refuted for having established views about that which is existent or non-existent.
Emptiness is the mother of all the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Arhats. This type of profound teaching cannot be taught to those who are unfortunate and incapable of understanding and accepting it. So, the fortunate and capable disciples who can receive such teaching are the ones who possess the three characteristics of remaining unbiased, having good analytical knowledge and longing for the profound teachings. If we realize emptiness, then the benefits are: (1) not being harmed by others who have perverted views of existence and non-existence, (2) not having to rely upon anyone and (3) gaining fearless endurance in the face of any sort of happiness or sadness. After realizing emptiness, immense compassion will spontaneously arise within us upon seeing sentient beings who have not realized this profound view.
Chapter 13: Meditation on the emptiness of the inner sense faculties and the objects of the sense faculties
The thirteenth chapter explains the emptiness of both the inner sense faculties and the objects of the sense faculties. Tirthikas and those Buddhists who are proponents of materialism debate with the Madhymikas, saying that even though you declare all phenomena to be emptiness, inner and outer phenomena still exist as we can perceive them directly. To this, the Madhyamika teaches about the absolute truth as being emptiness and the conventional truth as being dream-like and illusory. One way Madhyamika teaches absolute truth as emptiness is by using the example of a tree. A tree is not composed of a single particle but rather it is constituted by eight material aggregates. Now, which part can be considered to be the tree: its colour, shape, sound or any of the particles? If we analyze in depth, we can’t find the tree. Relating this reasoning to all outer phenomena and realizing everything to be emptiness, the six sense faculties and the six consciousnesses also do not ultimately exist, because they are all interrelated as object and subject. Everything we see, hear, taste and so forth are all like magical illusions. This is due to the law of interdependent origination because if there were no cause, there would be no effect and vice-versa. This is the conventional truth.
Chapter 14: Meditation on the teaching that refutes conceptual extremes
The fourteenth chapter explains the refutation of conceptual extremes. By meditating on interdependent arising, we come to know that there is nothing that stands on its own, without relying upon something else for its existence. The concepts of permanence, inherence and clinging to conceptual extremes are all refuted here. The constituents of a composite phenomenon cannot be the composite itself but without those constituents, such a solid composite’s existence is also impossible. When any phenomenon is analyzed in depth, there is nothing to be found as ‘oneness’ because many circumstances gave rise to it. Furthermore, without ‘one’, the concept of ‘many’ also does not exist. Most phenomena seem permanent, if we look with a wrong view at the ongoing process of matter. If they are regarded with a false view about their composition, it seems that some permanent things really exist. Essentially, the chapter focuses on ‘selflessness’. When we actualize the selfless nature of all phenomena, the root or seed-like consciousness that gives rise to samsara will also be dismantled and discarded.
Chapter 15: Meditation on the teaching that reftes composite phenomena
The fifteenth chapter explains the refutation of composite phenomena. Here, one contemplates on the birthless nature of all composite phenomena. For birth, there is no intrinsic characteristic as such, which would define it as a real and permanent phenomenon. With valid reasoning and justifications, birth is devoid of origination, abiding and cessation. Likewise, this transient world is also compared to a magical sight, which at any time can change any of its forms and features. Birth, life and death neither arise simultaneously nor in independent sequence. Since they are free of both, when will they arise or be born? Thus there is no ‘birth’ that we can cling to. What is pointed to here is an emptiness with which we can construct the foundation of contemplative meditation.
Chapter 16: Explaining how to cause teachers and disciples to gain certainty (about emptiness)
The sixteenth chapter explains about refuting the logic of true existence, which is asserted by all non-Prasangika Madhymika Buddhist tenet schools. Aryadeva says that to counter others’ positions or to prove one’s own position, logical reasoning is indispensable. If one’s assertion is not based on logic, one must accept the fact that what one asserts does not exist at all. He declares that truly existent and non-existent phenomena do not exist in any aspect, for they are never cognized by valid cognition. In fact, he does not even assert that emptiness or lack of emptiness has any truly established existence like some other schools do. This chapter says that as long as there are conceptual thoughts and views bound by the extremes, beings are trapped within these and will not achieve liberation. Thus, by getting rid of all extreme views and dualistic thoughts, the door to liberation remains open.
By Padma Mani Translation Group
